Learner Autonomy:
Knowing Who to Depend on and How?
David Palfreyman,
Zayed University, Dubai
Learner autonomy
and learner independence are sometimes seen in terms of learning without
assistance. Nunan (1997: 193), for example, states that "the
fully autonomous learner operates independently of classroom, teacher or
textbook". Here he is talking about an ideal rather than the
actual state of our students; but is it really so ideal? Imagine if
you were preparing to undergo a medical operation, and your surgeon told
you airily "Oh, I operate independently of any textbook".
This might not reassure you! Personally, I wouldn't expect the surgeon
to be using a textbook during the operation, but I would like to feel that
she was familiar with it; and if she checked something in the textbook before
the operation I would take that as evidence that she was taking the operation
seriously. I would also like to be confident that the surgeon was
able to communicate effectively with the anaesthetist, nurses and so on
with whom she will work during the operation. To sum up, I would hope
the surgeon could be autonomous in interacting with the resources (i.e.
things and people) around her. I would say the same goes for learners:
a large part of being successful is knowing where to turn for help in dealing
with language questions, needs, etc. In this short article I would
like to discuss briefly some of the resources which learners might need
to make use of; and how they might do this without necessarily becoming
"un-autonomous". I will use some examples from my own contact
with students and teachers.
Reference sources
One resource which is often mentioned in connection with learner autonomy
is the dictionary. Efficient use of a monolingual (English-English)
dictionary can help learners in understanding difficult reading texts while
also recycling other language; bilingual (e.g. Arabic-English) dictionaries
are useful in helping the learner to express herself using new vocabulary;
and example sentences in dictionaries can also help learners with many aspects
of grammar. There has been increasing recognition of dictionary use
as an independent skill; and publishers of dictionaries for learners of
English have started to provide supplementary booklets to train learners
in various aspects of dictionary use (e.g. Fuchs, 1997). On the other
hand, "dictionary dependence", in the form of "looking up every new word",
is mentioned by some teachers as a problem for their students, because it
slows down reading. Perhaps one of the most basic skills in using
a dictionary is knowing when and when not to use it; and dictionary training
for students can usefully be integrated with the development of other strategies:
guessing meaning, and recognizing key vocabulary in a text which needs to
be understood for the text to make sense.
Grammar reference books are another potentially useful resource. However,
grammar (in contrast to vocabulary) is often seen as the teacher`s area
of responsibility more than the learner`s. Even more than dictionaries,
grammar books can be overwhelming for learners; or they may lead learners
through a series of exercises and explanations without the learner actually
understanding how to use the structure in their own speech or writing.
Some recent grammar books (e.g. the "Do It Yourself" activities in Swan
and Walter, 1997) aim to strike a balance between giving students information
and helping them to notice patterns for themselves (Batstone, 1994); but
if such books are used only as set exercises by a teacher, then they are
not being used as autonomously as they could be. Ultimately, a student
will need to think about her own grammatical difficulties, and know where
to look them up in a reference book - and this involves training and practice
for the learner, as well as careful recommendations by the teacher as to
which reference books to use.
Other learners
Other learners are another important resource. Brookfield (1982, quoted
in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) studied very autonomous learners in non-educational
settings - people who had become expert at hobbies such as gardening or
crafts - and he notes that
"The learning activities of successful self-directed learners are placed
within a social context, and other people are cited as the most important
learning resource. Peers and fellow learners provide information, serve
as skill models, and act as reinforcers of learning and as counselors at
times of crisis".
This means that autonomous learners do not work in a social vacuum; instead,
they are able to collaborate with others for mutual benefit. Indeed,
Boud (1981) sees interdependence as a stage of development beyond independence.
When a student asks a question, then, you might want to pass the question
on to the rest of the class: does anyone else know the answer? Of
course, there are pitfalls in simply hoping that students will help each
other to learn: sometimes they will be unable to help each other.
However, it is important to try to foster an attitude that it is worth asking
another student the meaning of a word or a sentence in a reading text, for
example. If nothing else, discussing the question can make both students
aware of whether they understand well enough to continue reading; and it
can lead to negotiation of meaning which helps both students. Note
again that there may be a fine line between collaboration and copying: in
certain contexts (e.g. in tests) we really want to see what the student
can do alone! Incidentally, the same goes for a learner`s interaction
with a text: students and teachers need to be aware of the fine line between
"quarrying" a magazine article for new vocabulary and structures which can
be used in an essay (a useful activity), and what most people would call
plagiarism.
The teacher
"Teacher dependence" is often seen as the opposite of learner autonomy,
and sometimes this leads teachers to try and withdraw completely from giving
any help. However, the teacher can also be a valuable resource for
students. One phenomenon which has struck me when observing lessons
is the way in which some students (often those described as "independent"
by their teacher) make an effort to engage and interact with the teacher,
with the result that they receive more attention and help. In a sense
they are "managing" the teacher: drawing the teacher into their own learning
agenda and using her as a source of help with language and other matters.
A common example of this is student questions: can you think of a student
who always has a question to ask you about something, during or after the
lesson? If these questions are just about procedures (e.g. How many
words do we need to write?) they may seem a nuisance. However, questions
are one of the few means which students have for exerting control over teachers,
and students often value the opportunity to do this. One student who
I interviewed about this told me that her favourite teachers "go over
things when I ask about them - even in English. Writing it down, showing
the rules, giving lots of examples. And I can ask about whatever I
don't understand, without worrying about asking."
Several students gave examples of particular teachers who had motivated
them by giving very thorough answers to their questions, referring them
to extra practice materials, and so on. I would say that these students
can still be autonomous in the way they interact with their teacher.
The important point is for the student to be aware of other options which
s/he can also use for finding the answer.
Family
Another resource which is less often mentioned in the literature on learning,
but which can be very important to students, is other members of their family.
The family is often mentioned by students as a source of motivation, but
also of knowledge. Parents and brothers and sisters may be a source
of ideas about the world or about language; or they may motivate students
to learn. Conversely, students may also find that they are looked
to as the "English expert" in their family, and this can influence their
motivation and opportunities to practice, for example by making telephone
calls in English or helping their relatives or friends with homework.
Conclusion
Learner autonomy involves thinking about your own learning and trying to
be aware of your own strengths and weaknesses, for example - but this doesn't
mean avoiding any reliance on sources of help around you. Rather,
it means being aware of these sources and what they have to offer in different
situations. As teachers, we can help students to develop this awareness
not by simply trying to make them do without any help, but by guiding them,
discussing with them and trying to offer them different ways of learning.
If as teachers we can help students to develop this awareness, then we will
have done something to prepare students for lifelong learning.
References
Swan, M & Walter, C (1997) How English Works: A Grammar Practice Book.
Nunan, D (1997) Designing and Adapting Materials to Encourage Learner Autonomy.
In Benson, P and Voller, P (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning.
Batstone, R (1994) Grammar.
Brockett, RG & Hiemstra, R (1991) Self-Direction in Adult Learning:
Perspectives in Theory, Research and Practice.
Boud, D (1981) Moving Towards Autonomy. In Boud, D (ed) Developing
Student Autonomy in Learning.
Fuchs, M (1997) Longman Dictionary of American English Workbook.